Cicero: The Greatest Orator of Ancient Rome and Defender of the Roman Republic

Few figures in Roman history have left a legacy as enduring as Marcus Tullius Cicero. Statesman, lawyer, philosopher, writer, and orator, Cicero stands among the most influential intellectuals of the ancient world. His speeches shaped Roman politics, his philosophical works preserved Greek thought for future generations, and his writings profoundly influenced the development of Western political theory, rhetoric, law, and education.

Living during the turbulent final decades of the Roman Republic, Cicero witnessed many of the events that transformed Rome from a republican state into an imperial monarchy. He confronted conspirators, challenged powerful politicians, defended constitutional government, and attempted to preserve republican institutions during an era of civil war and political violence.

Ancient historians frequently regarded Cicero as Rome's greatest orator. His speeches became models of eloquence for centuries, while Renaissance scholars later viewed him as one of the principal architects of classical Latin prose. Even today, Cicero's ideas concerning liberty, justice, citizenship, and government continue to influence political thinkers around the world.

This article explores the life, career, philosophy, writings, political struggles, and lasting legacy of Cicero, drawing upon primary ancient sources and modern scholarship.

Early Life and Family Background

Marcus Tullius Cicero was born on January 3, 106 BCE in the town of Arpinum, located southeast of Rome.

Unlike many leading Roman politicians, Cicero did not come from one of the great aristocratic families.

Instead, he belonged to the equestrian class, a wealthy but non-senatorial social group.

According to Plutarch, Cicero's family invested heavily in education and ensured he received excellent training (Life of Cicero, Chapter 2).

From an early age, Cicero demonstrated remarkable intellectual ability.

His talents would eventually allow him to rise higher than almost any Roman outsider before him.

Education and Intellectual Formation

Cicero received an education that combined Roman traditions with Greek learning.

His studies included:

• Rhetoric

• Philosophy

• Law

• Literature

• Public speaking

According to Cicero himself, he studied under several distinguished teachers, including the Academic philosopher Philo of Larissa (Brutus, 306–316).

He also learned from Greek rhetoricians and philosophers who had settled in Rome.

This education profoundly shaped his worldview.

Throughout his life, Cicero sought to combine practical Roman politics with Greek philosophical thought.

The Importance of Rhetoric

In Roman society, public speaking was essential for political success.

Cicero devoted enormous effort to mastering rhetoric.

He later argued that an ideal statesman should possess:

• Wisdom

• Moral character

• Eloquence

In his dialogue De Oratore, Cicero wrote:

"The orator must know everything that concerns human life."

(De Oratore, I.20)

This belief distinguished him from many contemporaries.

For Cicero, rhetoric was not merely persuasion; it was a tool for governing society responsibly.

Early Legal Career

Cicero first gained public attention through his work as an advocate.

One of his earliest famous cases involved the defense of Sextus Roscius in 80 BCE.

According to Cicero's speech Pro Roscio Amerino, he challenged powerful interests connected to the dictatorship of Lucius Cornelius Sulla.

The successful defense established his reputation for courage and legal skill.

It also demonstrated his willingness to confront influential opponents.

Travels in Greece

After his early legal successes, Cicero traveled extensively throughout the Greek world.

According to Plutarch, he studied philosophy and rhetoric in:

• Athens

• Rhodes

• Asia Minor

(Life of Cicero, Chapters 3–4)

These experiences refined his speaking style and broadened his intellectual horizons.

Greek philosophy would remain central to Cicero's thought throughout his life.

Rise Through the Cursus Honorum

Like ambitious Roman politicians, Cicero pursued the cursus honorum, the traditional sequence of public offices.

He served successively as:

• Quaestor

• Aedile

• Praetor

• Consul

Each office increased his prestige and political influence.

His rise was particularly remarkable because he was a novus homo ("new man"), meaning he was the first member of his family to achieve senatorial rank.

Such advancement was extremely rare.

The Prosecution of Verres

One of Cicero's most important early achievements came in 70 BCE.

He prosecuted Gaius Verres, a former governor accused of corruption in Sicily.

The speeches against Verres became famous throughout Rome.

According to Cicero:

"The complaints of the Sicilians are countless."

(In Verrem, II.1)

Faced with overwhelming evidence, Verres fled into exile before the trial concluded.

The case established Cicero as Rome's leading advocate.

Election as Consul

In 63 BCE, Cicero achieved the highest elected office in the Republic by becoming consul.

His election represented an extraordinary accomplishment for a novus homo.

During his consulship, Cicero faced one of the greatest crises of his career.

The challenge came from a nobleman named Lucius Sergius Catilina, known today as Catiline.

The Catiline Conspiracy

The Catiline Conspiracy became the defining event of Cicero's political life.

According to Sallust, Catiline organized a plot aimed at overthrowing the Roman government (Bellum Catilinae).

The conspiracy allegedly involved:

• Political violence

• Assassinations

• Revolution

• Debt cancellation

Cicero uncovered the scheme and acted decisively.

His response made him famous throughout the Roman world.

The Catilinarian Orations

Cicero's speeches against Catiline remain among the most celebrated works of ancient rhetoric.

The first begins with the famous words:

"How long, O Catiline, will you abuse our patience?"

(First Catilinarian, 1)

The speeches exposed the conspiracy and rallied support for the Republic.

Eventually Catiline fled Rome and later died in battle against government forces.

The crisis elevated Cicero to unprecedented prominence.

"Father of the Fatherland"

Following the suppression of the conspiracy, Cicero received the title:

Pater Patriae ("Father of the Fatherland").

According to Plutarch, many Romans viewed him as the savior of the Republic (Life of Cicero, Chapter 23).

However, the methods he employed would later become controversial.

The execution of conspirators without formal trial created political enemies.

These enemies eventually sought revenge.

Exile and Return

In 58 BCE, the tribune Publius Clodius Pulcher passed legislation targeting Cicero's actions during the Catiline crisis.

Facing prosecution, Cicero went into exile.

According to his letters, this period caused profound emotional distress (Letters to Atticus, III).

However, political support for Cicero remained strong.

In 57 BCE, he was recalled to Rome.

His return was greeted with widespread public enthusiasm.

Cicero and the First Triumvirate

During Cicero's later career, Roman politics increasingly came under the influence of powerful individuals.

The First Triumvirate consisted of:

• Julius Caesar

• Pompey the Great

• Marcus Licinius Crassus

Cicero remained uneasy about their dominance.

He generally favored constitutional government and feared the concentration of power.

His political position became increasingly difficult as republican institutions weakened.

Cicero and Julius Caesar

Cicero's relationship with Julius Caesar was complex.

Although he admired Caesar's talents, he worried about his ambitions.

During the civil war between Caesar and Pompey, Cicero reluctantly supported Pompey.

After Caesar's victory, however, he received a pardon.

According to Cicero's letters, he remained skeptical of Caesar's growing authority (Letters to Atticus, XIII).

Cicero the Philosopher

Following Caesar's rise, Cicero devoted increasing attention to philosophy.

His major philosophical works include:

• De Republica

• De Legibus

• De Officiis

• Tusculan Disputations

• De Natura Deorum

These writings introduced Greek philosophical ideas to Roman audiences.

They became enormously influential in later centuries.

Cicero's Political Philosophy

At the heart of Cicero's philosophy was a commitment to natural law.

In De Republica, he wrote:

"True law is right reason in agreement with nature."

(De Republica, III.22)

Cicero believed that moral principles existed independently of governments.

This concept would later influence:

• Christian theology

• Renaissance humanism

• Enlightenment political theory

• Modern constitutional thought

The Assassination of Caesar

The assassination of Julius Caesar in 44 BCE dramatically altered Roman politics.

Although Cicero was not involved in the conspiracy, he welcomed the end of Caesar's dictatorship.

However, the Republic's future remained uncertain.

A new struggle for power soon emerged.

Cicero and Mark Antony

Cicero's final political battle was against Mark Antony.

Believing Antony threatened republican government, Cicero launched a series of speeches known as the Philippics.

Modeled after the speeches of Demosthenes against Philip II of Macedon, these orations fiercely attacked Antony.

Cicero declared:

"The republic cannot be safe while Antony lives."

(Philippic II)

The speeches intensified political tensions.

The Second Triumvirate

In 43 BCE, Octavian, Mark Antony, and Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate.

The new rulers compiled lists of political enemies known as proscriptions.

Cicero's name appeared on the list.

His opposition to Antony had sealed his fate.

Death of Cicero

In December 43 BCE, Cicero was captured while attempting to flee Italy.

According to Plutarch, he met death with dignity (Life of Cicero, Chapter 48).

His execution shocked many Romans.

Ancient accounts report that his head and hands were displayed publicly in the Roman Forum.

The act symbolized the violent end of the Republic he had spent his life defending.

Cicero's Literary Legacy

Few Roman authors produced such a vast body of work.

Surviving writings include:

• Speeches

• Philosophical treatises

• Political works

• Rhetorical manuals

• Hundreds of letters

His correspondence is especially valuable because it provides firsthand insight into the final decades of the Roman Republic.

According to modern historians, Cicero's letters constitute one of the richest documentary collections from antiquity.

Influence on Western Civilization

Cicero's influence extended far beyond ancient Rome.

During the Renaissance, scholars rediscovered and celebrated his writings.

Figures influenced by Cicero include:

• Petrarch

• Erasmus

• John Locke

• Montesquieu

• Thomas Jefferson

His ideas concerning liberty, law, citizenship, and constitutional government helped shape modern political thought.

Primary Sources on Cicero

The principal ancient sources include:

Cicero's Own Works

• De Republica

• De Legibus

• De Officiis

• Philippics

• Catilinarian Orations

• Letters to Atticus

Plutarch

Life of Cicero

Sallust

Bellum Catilinae

Cassius Dio

Roman History

These sources provide extensive evidence regarding his life and career.

Conclusion

Marcus Tullius Cicero was one of the most remarkable figures in Roman history. Rising from provincial origins to become Rome's leading orator, statesman, philosopher, and defender of republican government, he left an intellectual legacy that has endured for more than two millennia.

His speeches exposed conspiracies, challenged tyrants, and shaped public debate. His philosophical writings preserved Greek thought and influenced generations of political thinkers. His letters provide an unparalleled window into the collapse of the Roman Republic.

Although Cicero ultimately failed to save the republican system he cherished, his ideas about law, liberty, justice, and citizenship survived long after his death. Today, he remains one of the most influential voices of the ancient world and a central figure in the history of Western civilization.

References

Primary Sources

• Cicero, De Republica

• Cicero, De Legibus

• Cicero, De Officiis

• Cicero, Philippics

• Cicero, Catilinarian Orations

• Cicero, Letters to Atticus

• Plutarch, Life of Cicero

• Sallust, Bellum Catilinae

• Cassius Dio, Roman History

Secondary Sources

• Anthony Everitt, Cicero: The Life and Times of Rome's Greatest Politician

• Kathryn Tempest, Cicero: Politics and Persuasion in Ancient Rome

• Elizabeth Rawson, Cicero: A Portrait

• H.H. Scullard, From the Gracchi to Nero

• Robin Waterfield, Creators, Conquerors, and Citizens

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