The Vedas are the oldest sacred scriptures of ancient India, composed in Vedic Sanskrit between roughly 1500 and 500 BCE, and form the foundation of Hindu religious and philosophical tradition. Consisting of four primary texts—the Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda—the Vedas preserve hymns, rituals, liturgies, and cosmological reflections central to early Indo-Aryan culture. As core sources for ancient Indian religion, ritual practice, linguistics, and philosophy, the Vedas are essential for understanding the development of Hinduism, early metaphysical thought, and South Asian civilization.

The Rigveda is the oldest and most foundational text of the Vedic tradition, composed in Vedic Sanskrit between roughly 1500 and 1200 BCE. Consisting of 1,028 hymns (suktas) addressed to deities such as Indra, Agni, Soma, and Varuna, the Rig Veda preserves early Indo-Aryan religious beliefs, cosmology, and ritual poetry. As a primary source for ancient Indian religion, mythology, linguistics, and early Hindu thought, the Rig Veda is essential for understanding the origins of Vedic ritual, poetic tradition, and South Asian civilization.

The Upanishads are a collection of ancient Indian philosophical works composed between roughly 800 and 300 BCE, forming the concluding portion of the Vedic tradition. Written in Sanskrit, the Upanishads explore profound metaphysical concepts such as Brahman (ultimate reality), Atman (the self), karma, samsara, and moksha, shifting religious thought from ritual practice toward inner knowledge and spiritual liberation. As foundational texts of Hindu philosophy and Indian metaphysics, the Upanishads have deeply influenced Vedanta, yoga traditions, and global philosophical discourse.

The Mahabharata is one of the longest and most influential epic poems in world literature, composed in Sanskrit between roughly 400 BCE and 400 CE and traditionally attributed to Vyasa. Centered on the great conflict between the Pandavas and Kauravas, the epic weaves together mythology, history, philosophy, and moral inquiry, including the renowned Bhagavad Gita. As a foundational text of Indian literature, Hindu philosophy, and dharma (righteous duty), the Mahabharata is essential for understanding ancient Indian society, ethics, kingship, and spiritual thought.

The Bhagavad Gita is a central text of Hindu philosophy and Indian religious thought, composed in Sanskrit between roughly 200 BCE and 200 CE as part of the Mahabharata. Presented as a dialogue between Krishna and the warrior Arjuna on the battlefield of Kurukshetra, the Gita addresses core concepts such as dharma (duty), karma (action), bhakti (devotion), and moksha (liberation). As a foundational work of Indian philosophy, ethics, and spirituality, the Bhagavad Gita has profoundly influenced Hindu practice, global philosophy, and comparative religious studies.

The Arthashastra is a foundational work of ancient Indian political theory, economics, and statecraft, composed in Sanskrit around the 3rd century BCE and traditionally attributed to Kautilya, also known as Chanakya. The text offers a systematic analysis of governance, law, taxation, diplomacy, military strategy, and espionage, emphasizing pragmatic and ethical approaches to rulership. As a cornerstone of Indian political philosophy and administrative thought, the Arthashastra is essential for understanding Mauryan governance, ancient economics, and realpolitik in South Asian history.

The Ramayana is one of the two great epics of ancient Indian literature, composed in Sanskrit between roughly 500 BCE and 100 BCE and traditionally attributed to the sage Valmiki. The epic narrates the life of Rama, focusing on his exile, the abduction of Sita, and the battle against Ravana, while emphasizing ideals of dharma, devotion, kingship, and moral virtue. As a foundational text of Hindu tradition, Indian ethics, and epic poetry, the Ramayana has profoundly shaped religious practice, art, and cultural identity across South and Southeast Asia.

The Manusmriti, also known as the Laws of Manu, is an influential ancient Indian legal and social text composed in Sanskrit between roughly 200 BCE and 200 CE. Traditionally attributed to the sage Manu, the work outlines norms governing dharma (duty), law, social order, caste (varna), family life, and kingship. As a foundational source for classical Hindu law, social ethics, and religious jurisprudence, the Manusmriti has played a major role in shaping Indian legal thought, social structure, and moral philosophy over centuries.

The Puranas are a vast genre of ancient Indian religious and mythological literature composed primarily between roughly 300 and 1000 CE in Sanskrit. Traditionally numbering eighteen major texts (Mahāpurāṇas) along with numerous minor Purāṇas, they preserve narratives of cosmology, creation and destruction, genealogies of gods and kings, legends of Vishnu, Shiva, and Devi, and cycles of time (yugas). As essential sources for Hindu mythology, devotional traditions (bhakti), and cultural history, the Purāṇas played a central role in shaping popular Hindu practice, temple culture, and religious storytelling across the Indian subcontinent.