By History And Culture Media

10/27/2024

The Western Schism: The Crisis That Divided the Catholic Church

The Western Schism, also known as the Great Western Schism or the Papal Schism, was one of the greatest crises in the history of the medieval Catholic Church. Between 1378 and 1417, rival popes claimed authority over Christendom, dividing Europe politically, religiously, and culturally. At one point, three separate men simultaneously claimed to be the true pope.

The Western Schism severely damaged the prestige of the papacy, intensified political rivalries between European kingdoms, and helped lay the foundations for later religious reform movements. Emerging directly from the instability of the Avignon Papacy, the schism exposed deep tensions between Church authority, secular monarchies, and ecclesiastical governance.

This article explores the causes, major events, key figures, primary sources, and long-term impact of the Western Schism, while examining how the crisis permanently transformed the medieval Church.

What Was the Western Schism?

The Western Schism was a division within the Catholic Church from 1378 to 1417 in which rival popes ruled simultaneously from Rome and Avignon, each claiming legitimacy. By 1409, the crisis worsened when a third claimant emerged following the Council of Pisa. (Wikipedia)

Unlike the earlier East–West Schism between the Catholic and Orthodox Churches, the Western Schism was not primarily theological. Instead, it was driven largely by political conflict, papal elections, and competing national loyalties. (Lumen Learning)

European kingdoms divided into rival camps:

• France generally supported the Avignon pope

• England supported the Roman pope

• Scotland aligned with Avignon

• Much of the Holy Roman Empire supported Rome

The division created enormous confusion throughout medieval Europe, as Christians struggled to determine which pope was the legitimate successor to Saint Peter.

Background: The Avignon Papacy

The roots of the Western Schism lay in the earlier Avignon Papacy (1309–1377), when seven successive popes resided in Avignon instead of Rome. Many Europeans believed the papacy had become overly dependent on the French monarchy. (Encyclopedia Britannica)

The return of Pope Gregory XI to Rome in 1377 was intended to restore stability. However, Gregory died only a year later, creating a volatile political situation.

Rome erupted into chaos as crowds demanded the election of an Italian pope.

The Election of Pope Urban VI

In April 1378, the cardinals elected Bartolomeo Prignano as Pope Urban VI. Initially, the election appeared valid. However, Urban soon alienated many cardinals through harsh reforms and aggressive behavior. (Encyclopedia Britannica)

Several French cardinals later claimed they had voted under fear of mob violence and declared the election invalid. They withdrew to Fondi and elected Robert of Geneva as Pope Clement VII.

Clement established his court in Avignon, while Urban remained in Rome.

Thus began the Western Schism.

Two Rival Popes Divide Europe

The existence of two rival popes created unprecedented confusion within the Church.

Each pope:

• Appointed his own cardinals

• Collected taxes

• Issued decrees

• Excommunicated supporters of the rival pope

• Claimed exclusive legitimacy

The conflict rapidly became entangled with European politics.

Supporters of the Roman Papacy

• England

• The Holy Roman Empire

• Hungary

• Poland

Supporters of the Avignon Papacy

• France

• Scotland

• Naples

• Parts of Spain

The schism weakened the moral authority of the papacy because ordinary Christians witnessed rival pontiffs condemning one another while claiming divine authority.

Why the Western Schism Was So Dangerous

The Western Schism threatened the unity of Western Christianity itself.

For medieval Europeans, the pope was supposed to serve as the visible head of the universal Church. Multiple rival popes undermined that foundational idea.

Contemporaries feared:

• The collapse of Church unity

• Corruption within papal elections

• Political domination of the papacy

• Spiritual uncertainty regarding sacraments and authority

The crisis also damaged trust in ecclesiastical institutions across Europe.

Catherine of Siena and Calls for Unity

One of the most important figures during the crisis was Catherine of Siena.

Before the schism formally began, Catherine urged Pope Gregory XI to return from Avignon to Rome. After the schism erupted, she strongly defended Urban VI as the legitimate pope.

Primary Source: Letters of Catherine of Siena

In her letters, Catherine repeatedly called for reform, unity, and courage within the Church. She argued that division endangered Christian society and weakened spiritual authority.

Her writings became some of the most influential contemporary reactions to the crisis.

The Failed Solution: The Council of Pisa

By the early 15th century, many Church leaders believed the only solution was an ecumenical council.

In 1409, cardinals from both obediences gathered at the Council of Pisa. The council attempted to depose both rival popes and elected a new pope, Alexander V. (Wikipedia)

However, neither existing pope accepted the council’s authority.

Instead of ending the crisis, the Church now had three rival popes:

1. The Roman pope

2. The Avignon pope

3. The Pisan pope

The situation became even more chaotic.

Conciliarism: Can a Council Overrule a Pope?

The crisis fueled the growth of conciliarism, the theory that an ecumenical council possessed authority superior to the pope in extraordinary circumstances.

This idea became central during the efforts to resolve the schism.

Primary Source: Haec Sancta (1415)

At the Council of Constance, Church leaders issued the decree Haec Sancta, which declared:

“This synod declares that it has immediate power from Christ.”

The decree asserted that even popes must obey a general council in matters concerning Church reform and the healing of schism. (churchauthority.org)

This was one of the most revolutionary constitutional statements in medieval Church history.

The Council of Constance

The Council of Constance (1414–1418) finally resolved the Western Schism.

Convened with the support of Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund, the council sought to:

• End the papal division

• Reform the Church

• Restore ecclesiastical unity

• Address heresy movements such as those associated with Jan Hus

The council persuaded Pope Gregory XII of the Roman line to resign voluntarily. It deposed the Pisan pope John XXIII and excommunicated the Avignon claimant Benedict XIII after he refused to step down. (Wikipedia)

Finally, in 1417, the council elected Pope Martin V.

The Western Schism officially ended.

Jan Hus and the Crisis of Church Authority

The Western Schism also intensified criticism of Church corruption and authority.

The Czech reformer Jan Hus criticized abuses within the Church and questioned aspects of papal authority. He was summoned to the Council of Constance under promises of safe conduct.

Despite those guarantees, Hus was condemned as a heretic and executed in 1415. (Encyclopedia Britannica)

His death outraged many in Bohemia and contributed to the later Hussite Wars.

Many historians see Hus as an important precursor to the Protestant Reformation.

Political Impact of the Western Schism

The Western Schism transformed medieval politics.

1. Decline of Papal Prestige

The papacy emerged from the schism deeply weakened. Rival popes had damaged the image of the Church as a unified spiritual authority.

Many Europeans became increasingly skeptical of papal claims.

2. Rise of National Monarchies

Kings and secular rulers gained greater control over churches within their own territories. National loyalty often became stronger than loyalty to the universal Church.

3. Growth of Reform Movements

Criticism of corruption during the schism encouraged reformers such as:

• John Wycliffe

• Jan Hus

• Later Protestant leaders including Martin Luther

The schism exposed structural weaknesses within the Church hierarchy.

Theological and Institutional Consequences

The Western Schism forced theologians to confront difficult constitutional questions:

• Who determines the legitimate pope?

• Can a council depose a pope?

• Does ultimate authority rest in councils or the papacy?

The debates surrounding conciliarism continued for centuries.

Although later Catholic teaching reaffirmed papal supremacy, the crisis permanently altered discussions about Church governance.

Historians’ Interpretations of the Western Schism

Modern historians generally view the Western Schism as a political rather than theological crisis. National rivalries, papal elections, and institutional instability played larger roles than doctrinal disagreements. (Lumen Learning)

Some historians emphasize the failure of papal monarchy, while others focus on the emergence of constitutional ideas within the Church.

Recent scholarship also highlights the role of diplomacy, communication networks, and secular rulers in shaping the course of the schism. (Cambridge University Press & Assessment)

Conclusion

The Western Schism was one of the most devastating crises in the history of the medieval Catholic Church. For nearly forty years, rival popes divided Europe and shattered confidence in papal authority.

Born from the tensions of the Avignon Papacy, the schism exposed the vulnerability of the Church to political interference and institutional conflict. The crisis weakened the prestige of the papacy, encouraged reform movements, and reshaped the relationship between religion and political power across Europe.

Although the Council of Constance restored unity through the election of Pope Martin V, the damage to the Church’s authority endured. The debates sparked by the Western Schism helped prepare the intellectual and political environment that would eventually lead to the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century.

Today, the Western Schism remains a defining chapter in medieval European history and a powerful example of how political division can transform religious institutions.

Sources

Primary Sources

• Haec Sancta (1415), Council of Constance

• Letters of Catherine of Siena

• Records of the Council of Constance

• Chronicles of Ulrich Richental

• Writings of Jan Hus

Secondary Sources

• Encyclopaedia Britannica: Western Schism (Encyclopedia Britannica)

• Wikipedia: Western Schism (Wikipedia)

• Catholic Encyclopedia: Western Schism (New Advent)

• Britannica: Council of Constance (Encyclopedia Britannica)

• Fordham Medieval Sourcebook: Sacrosancta (Internet History Sourcebooks)

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